Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Essay Example for Free

Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Essay The modern republics of Poland and Lithuania had been once been a single, strong nation known as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This commonwealth was established in 1569. Although there were other states in the commonwealth, none of them was as powerful as Poland. The nation was on the brink of success when the rest of Europe was ravaging in the famous thirty years war between 1618 and 1648. The Commonwealth noblemen had no desire to get involved in these wars and they were able defend the country against external attacks from the Germans, Russians and the Ottoman Turks (TLK). However, the commonwealth’s supremacy and stability did not last for long and there already were clear signs of decline by the mid 17th century. The main cause of the decline was wars that were fought within and outside the commonwealth. Thus, the weakened state could not hold itself together after these wars which ultimately led to its partition. The decline of Poland was basically evincible in the legislative body Sejm. The divergent systems of the parliament grew ineffective and inefficient at a time when the deputies went verbal asserting â€Å"Liberum Veto† which gave them excessive power over national resolutions. The country’s population had decreased by big proportions as a result of wars. This made it practically impossible for the nation to succeed in its wars against other nations, though they were able to defeat the Ottomans at Vienna. This was the last success realized by the commonwealth military (Davies 24). The Szlachta (noblemen) also diminished in their ability to influence others and consequentially depreciated in military vigor. In a myriad of situations they became impotent and viewed â€Å"veto† as the only remaining legislative symbol within the commonwealth (25). The Decline of the Commonwealth In 1648, the warlike Cossacks, with the support of Russia, upstaged a rebellion against Poland. Thus the Russians began to influence the affairs of the country. Later in 1655, the Commonwealth was involved in another war with Sweden, provoked by the policies of Commonwealth kings from the Swedish royal House of Vasa. The Swedes installed Stanislaw Leszczynski as king. However, they were defeated by the Russians in 1709 and this resulted in the reinstatement of Augustus on the throne (TLK). Augustus was at conflict with parliament and this lead to a civil war in 1717. The Russians responded by reducing the powers of the Sejm, who by now were at the centre of running Poland, came to the rescue of Augustus. This resulted in Poland being forced to cut down the size of her standing army. When Augustus died in 1733, Leszyski returned to the throne. This move was met with resistance from the Russians who forced him out and made Fredrick Augustus, a son to Augustus, king instead. Another blow to the commonwealth was the Saxon rule that lasted for sixty years. It drove the nation to the edges of lawlessness, devastating it even more. A powerful alliance between Russia, Prussia and Australia ensured that Poland’s legal system and maintain ace of order was paralyzed. The three nations formed the â€Å"Alliance of the Three Black Eagles† owing to the fact that all the three had eagles, black in color, on their coat-of-arms (Kjaergard 121). The Partitioning of the Commonwealth By the 18th century, the Commonwealth could not handle the many internal problems that were plaguing it and this made the fragile nation more vulnerable to external influences. The political system was in shambles and this soon culminated to the schism of the commonwealth. The country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian, Prussian, and Austrian powers (TLK) . The first partition was in 1772, when the Commonwealth lost 733, 000 square kilometers of land together with about four million people. Russia took most of the land while a majority of the population went to Austria. The Sejm ratified the partition agreement despite much resistance from the state’s deputies. After the first partition, there was a period of relative stability that saw to the development of a better education sector in the country. There was a rise in the number of professionals in various fields. The king initialized a healing programme, which was executed by the â€Å"Great Sejm†. The Four Year or Great Sejm came up with a new constitution (Domar 56). â€Å"Liberum Veto† was abolished under the newly formed constitution, changing how the country was governed. people were guaranteed personal freedom and more liberty was enhanced. England, France and the United States hailed the newly formed constitution. On the other hand, this step was viewed as a threat by the rulers of Austria and Russia. This led to a wide instigation of large numbers of magnate under the leadership of Branicki Ksawery, Potocki Szczesny and Rzewuski Seweryn. This was a betrayal of the commonwealth hence leading to the formation of the Targowica Confedaration in disrespect to the declarations of the newly formed constitution (Kjaergard 122) The second partition was as a result of Russian invation. The troops from Russia decided to cross the borders and immediately war broke out. Joseph Poniatowski who was the King’s nephew together with Kosciuszko Tadeusz, a supporter of the American Independence War, erected a vehement resistance although all confidence was crushed after the Prussians joined the fighting. Many people, who would otherwise have been citizens, ran away to other countries. In 1793, Prussia and Russia were obliged to sign the Second Partition Treaty. This led to about About This led to holding in of more than half of the entire nation with a population of about four million people. Later, there was a meeting at Grodno composed mainly of the Sejm which deliberated on the legal processd to make legal the process of partitioning of the country. After the partitioning, there was widespread discontent within the general population (Kostrowicka 34). The final partition in 1795 was the most devastating. A lot of Poles were evicted from their country. The King was seized and taken to prison in St. Petersburg. Other people were sent to the harsh cold deserts of Siberia and thousands more fled to other lands. Conclusion Although Poland’s history is one full of turmoil, a lot can be learnt from it. It is clear that good governance policies should be in place for a country to run smoothly. The heads of state should at the fore front providing the much needed leadership to citizens of their countries. If the Polish constitution had had good policies, and if the leaders were competent enough, then maybe the history of the Poles would be much different and better than it is.

Childrens Beauty Pageants Essay -- essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It’s 7:OO A.M. on a Saturday, kids everywhere are just waking up ready to watch their favorite line up of Saturday morning cartoons. Marie, a four year old child, is preparing for her long weekend of make-up, hairspray, and gowns. Marie is one of many children who are forced by over-demanding parents who pressure their young and innocent children into many beauty pageants each year, and its wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Beauty pageants first originated in Atlantic City. It was a marketing tool to make tourists stay in town longer (Banet-Weiser). News struck about this beauty pageant and the local news paper headlined â€Å"The next Miss America†. As beauty pageants grew popular, a Little Miss America was started for parents who wanted their children in the contest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The average beauty pageant costs about $655 which includes the formal wear, sports wear and dance (A&E). The average cost does not include travel, hotel and food, which can be up to an extra two hundred dollars; and in some cases dresses for formal and sports wear can cost up to $12,000 with a minimum of $1500 (A&E). With the vast amount of expenses spent the pressure to win becomes more intense, leaving no room for mistakes. A four year old child should not have to go through the burden of a beauty pageant.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Preparing for a pageant requires time and patience, hair lasting around an hour and forty-five minutes, make-up around an hour, and different performances that require some participants to practice for about seven hours a week (A&E). All of this is not healthy at a young age. During these pageants children are judged by the following: modeling sportswear and evening wear, how well they dance, and how much talent they have. They are also judged by their looks how well they perform, and how confident they appear.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Approximately 250,000 children participate in pageants each year (Wolf). Mothers who have children in beauty pageants argue that their children gains a boost of confidence through performing in front of crowds. They are also more socially comfortable around other people, and their children mature at a younger age than â€Å"normal† children do. Isn’t seeing a child â€Å"growing old before my eyes† a bad thing. What parent wants to see their child grow up any... ...m have finished with the first of three long days. She looks at her mom with teary eyes as she walks off stage empty handed. She feels that she has failed her mom and herself. Children at such a young age are very fragile, the do not have the experience to learn that they are still a worthy person even if they lose. Marie sees all of the other children leaving with trophies running towards their parents to give them a hug. As she walks of the stage with nothing and see the disappointment of her parents as they turn away. If that isn’t wrong†¦then what is?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited A&E. Inside Story: Baby Beauty Queens Banet-Weiser, Sarah. ‘The Most Beautiful Girl in the World: Beauty Pageants and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  National Identity.† Berkley: University of California Press: 1999. Cawthorne, Andrew. ‘Miss World to emerge from the shadow of deaths,’ (website)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http:/http://www.tiscali.co.uk. Date published: 5/12/2002 18:44 Lester, Time. Venzuela Beauty. Foreign Correspondent, (Dated aired) 03/16/2005. Wolf, Naomi. â€Å"The Beauty Myth. London: Vintage: 1990, pg. 288.

American History In A Global Context Essay

America has been at the centre of the history of the world as much as the history of the world has been at eh centre of the formation of the American nation. This makes it important for anyone looking at and trying to understand America make it his or her business to look at the histories of the world and that of the United States of America as one entity with different faces and phases rather than two distinct entities (Baud, 158). Many historians have implied that it is the isolation policy of the United State that helped her industrialize. However it is worth noting that America interacted with the other European nations in the earlier years of her republic. This isolation however helped develop without interference the economic, cultural, industrial and political thoughts of the nation in the intervening years between colonization and the world wars of the twentieth century. America went in to small wars with the French and Mexicans as well as the Spaniards but these wars never had a significant impact on the direction America was taking (Bender, 257). Historical context and world history American history dates back to the days of exploration by Columbus. She managed to transport in to her industries orient goods by water and whale trading became a booming business. America at the moment was at the centre of this trade. The discoveries of the nation strengthened world trade with the industries in America becoming big centers for trade (Bender, 178). Turning to the American Civil War one might be tempted to think that this was an isolated case for the American people. Deep down the revolution was a strong feeling and tide to end the reign of slavery in the world. These were the seedling of freedom planted in an attempt to end slavery. Bender says that the American Civil War is â€Å"a larger history of†¦ conflicts over nationalism and freedom and the proper balance of central and local authority. † This has more often than not repeated itself in other parts of the world at a smaller or larger scale (Bender, 218). From colonialism it was the centre for migration and voyages that marked the advances of the world powers in conquering other nations. Later America becomes the centre of slavery. As central as the tide of slavery is to the world, so is it to American history and development (Baud, 58). Later on in the following years America was at the centre of civil rights movements. It set the trends on civil and human rights for the rest of the world to copy. The modifications on child labor laws, civil rights, better working conditions and many social changes have been driven from American struggles and reformation (Bender, 105). At one point America was said to rag behind in other social issues. Baud suggests that it is the openness of the rest of the world and the American feeling to catch up with the rest of the world that have driven her to make the many and significant changes and strides n the medical and food security and health issues. The feelings and advances of the world have driven America to follow suit and to set the pace on such issues affecting her population. This has gotten the United States of America in to the ring of global influence (Baud, 79). Industrialization in America and the whole world brought with it many challenges and social issues. While the industries had to make profit, they had to look at the interest of the workers. As the labor laws activists fought for better conditions for the workers, they were responding to a global tide that. This was in all nations that had industrialized. Bender in fact says that some of the laws that exist in the American system could be traced in other countries long before the surfaced in America. Among these laws are some insurance laws, laws on child labor as well as better working conditions (Bender, 289). The integration of the immigrant races will also play a central role in shaping the history of American and consequently that of the world. A nation built on migration rising to the status of a world super power is a nation to watch even as other nations open up to immigration (Adas, 34). Further in his analysis Adas, looks at the later influences that the so called ‘ideals of the American people have shaped and influenced the world after the coming to being of the American state. While the Americans moving from Europe wanted a nation built on freedom and very strong ideals, the Germans had an almost similar idea. It may seem like years after but it is the same idea of purity and nationalism that informs the activities of the Germans later (Adas, 32). Bender is categorical on the place and the role of America as a military empire in the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. America is seen to intervene in global wars between empires. All this time she has not only been watching but preparing herself though for no war in particular. Even when America goes to war it marks her place in the history of the American nation as well as that of the world (Bender, 229). One of the most common influences America has had on the world’s political landscape is the concept of democracy. Other nations have found it comfortable to adopt the American system of political interaction. According to Bender this concept has not only influenced the political but the social systems of the world. It was hard for America to sell the concept of freedom and democracy to the other nations while slavery existed on her south. This forced her abolish slavery in order to easily sell the democracy idea. Its adoption meant freedom for many other marginalized groups of the world (Bender, 256). Conclusion One can only be splitting hairs trying to differentiate the history of America with that of the world. It is a fact undeniable to any one that America has her history grounded and similarly identical to that of the world. The many changes the world has witnessed have been influenced and at the same time they have influenced the world outlook. This is an assertion that finds home in the ideas of great scholars as discussed above and at the same time very verifiable and logical. If proper understanding of the history of America is to be achieved it has to be grounded squarely on the history of the world. Works cited 1. Adas, M, (2001) `From settler colony to global hegemony: integrating the exceptionalist narrative of the American experience into world history`, American historical review, The University of Chicago Press: Indiana. 2. Bender, T, (2006) A Nation Among Nations: Americas place in world history, introduction. (6), Hill and Wang: New York. 3. Baud, M, and W Van Schendel, (1997) `Toward a Comparative history of the borderlands` in Journal of world history, University of Hawaii Press: Hawaii

Europe Economic Crisis - 55278 Words

ISSN 0379-0991 Economic Crisis in Europe: Causes, Consequences and Responses EUROPEAN ECONOMY 7|2009 EUROPEAN COMMISSION The European Economy series contains important reports and communications from the Commission to the Council and the Parliament on the economic situation and developments, such as the Economic forecasts, the annual EU economy review and the Public ï ¬ nances in EMU report. Subscription terms are shown on the back cover and details on how to obtain the list of sales agents are shown on the inside back cover. Unless otherwise indicated, the texts are published under the responsibility of the Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs of the European Commission, BU24, B-1049 Brussels, to which enquiries†¦show more content†¦Preparing exit strategies now, not only for fiscal stimulus, but also for government support for the financial sector and hard-hit industries, will enhance the effectiveness of these measures in the short term, as this depends upon clarity regarding the pace with which such measures will be withdrawn. Since financial markets, businesses and co nsumers are forward-looking, expectations are factored into decision making today. The precise timing of exit strategies will depend on the strength of the recovery, the exposure of Member States to the crisis and prevailing internal and external imbalances. Part of the fiscal stimulus stemming from the EERP will taper off in 2011, but needs to be followed up by sizeable fiscal consolidation in following years to reverse the unsustainable debt build-up. In the financial sector, government guarantees and holdings in financial institutions will need to be gradually unwound as the private sector gains strength, while carefully balancing financial stability with competitiveness considerations. Close coordination will be important. ‘Vertical’ coordination between the various strands of economic policy (fiscal, structural, financial) will ensure that the withdrawal of government measures is properly sequenced -- an important consideration as turning points may differ across p olicy areas.Show MoreRelatedThe Global Economic Crisis Of The Middle Of 2007 And Europe From 2007-20091459 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction The finÐ °nÃ' iÐ °l crisis of 2007/2008 was not Ð ° Ã' Ã °sÐ µ of markets failing. 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